In Mizokami (2014), Active Learning is defined as:

*“Cognitive processes” refer to the processing of information through mental representation such as perception, memory, language, and thought. Thought includes logical/critical/creative thinking, deduction, judgment, decision-making, and problem-solving.

The key points of this definition are as follows:

(1) “Listening” in lectures is defined operationally as passive learning, which is overcome by learning actively. That is Active Learning.

(2) Learning actively in accordance with (1) is achieved through activation and combination of “activities” (writing, speaking, presenting, etc.) and “cognition” (perception, memory, language, and thought). Activities such as speaking and presenting are also known as pair work, group work, or presentations. Cognition responds to the critique of “activism” (where activities are plentiful but learning is not deep) outlined by Wiggins & McTighe (2005).

• Active Learning was enshrined in policy in the so-called “qualitative transformation” report of the Central Council for Education in 2012. That report offered the following explanation of Active Learning:

Both definitions place emphasis on the adoption of learning approaches that entail activities such as writing, speaking, and presenting in class, as a way to break free from the exclusively lecture-based class format. The idea of extending learning from the individual level to a more collaborative, social context incorporating other learners and groups (i.e., the socialization of learning) could be seen as an especially important point given that learning has traditionally centered on individual acquisition of knowledge and skills.

Two major differences can be observed. The first concerns the logic employed.

The qualitative transformation report argues for the introduction of Active Learning in order to cultivate skills and attitudes (capabilities), explaining that “[by] learning actively, learners can develop their generic capabilities including cognitive, ethical, and social capabilities, general accomplishment, knowledge, and experience.” The report goes on to say that Active Learning entails “such approaches as discovery learning, problem-solving learning, experiential learning, and exploratory learning,” but involvement in “such activities as group discussions, debates, and group work in the classroom,” has been deemed as means to cultivate skills and attitudes (capabilities).

In contrast, Mizokami (2014) argues that growth indicators (objectives) should be established in accordance with paradigms of learning and growth, for the purpose of addressing problems in the transition from school to work and wider society, and that Active Learning should be adopted as a means to achieve those objectives (Mizokami 2016). The goal of Active Learning in the qualitative transformation report is the cultivation of skills and attitudes (capabilities); in Mizokami (2014), it is student growth that resolves transition problems.

The second difference concerns the elements constituting the definition and explanation. In the qualitative transformation report, Active Learning is the involvement of students in “such approaches as discovery learning, problem-solving learning, experiential learning, and exploratory learning,” and also “such activities as group discussions, debates, and group work in the classroom.” This definition envisages simply involvement in activities. This does not mean, however, that Active Learning is explained merely as the involvement of students in activities; the activities are seen as outcomes-based and leading to the development of “generic capabilities including cognitive, ethical, and social capabilities, general accomplishment, knowledge, and experience.” This is a notable feature.

In contrast, Mizokami defines Active Learning as a combination of involvement in activities (such as writing, speaking and presenting) and externalization of cognitive processes. This definition adds externalization of cognitive processes as a condition for the realization of broader growth including cultivation of skills and attitudes (capabilities). There are therefore two constitutive elements: involvement in activities, and externalization of cognitive processes. The realization of student growth including acquisition of skills and attitudes (capabilities) is seen to occur when these two elements work fully in concert (for details, see Mizokami 2016).